Spheromaks are torodial plasmoids of electrons and usually some positive ions. They are known by many names including EVOs, charge clusters, electron clusters, compact toroids, spiral toroids, erzions, ectons, EVs, and Strange Radiation. Regardless what these tools are called, they are the primary (although perhaps not exclusive) stimulation method for all forms of LENR. Immediately upon contact with matter "white" (excited and less stable) EVOs explode; after traveling some distance through matter with little effect "black" or very "gray" (more stable and only weakly interactive with matter) finally destabilize and explode. Either way, their final supernova like flash sends out a multitude of different types of stimulation that have been claimed in LENR literature to induce nuclear reactions. Electrons, neutrons (fast and slow), high energy protons, high energy heavy ions, x-rays, gamma rays, and clusters of bound electrons that could induce muon-like fusion: EVOs are truly the shotgun approach to LENR! Although the magnitude of each of the above types of LENR stimulation may vary according to different factors, spheromaks always seem to mess around with the nuclear structure of matter. Isotopic shifts and transmutations are exceedingly common.
Andrea Rossi, if he originally knew it or not (his understanding likely evolved), always produced nuclear reactions using spheromaks. Virtually all LENR systems do! However, what's important to note is that depending on the specific design of his reactor, he was varying the ratio of where the EVOs originated. Some would come from within which means straight out of his fuel (interior with fracto-emission and the doped, reduced work function carbon surface). Others would come from outside the fuel such as from a high temperature perhaps thoriated tungsten heating element, streamers produced by the output of a high voltage Tesla Coil, the plasma produced by a Radio Frequency Generator, the plasma and rotating magnetic field generated by the harmonics of his high frequency three phase AC fed spiral resistors, and the production of high voltage sparks or electrical discharges. What's important to note is that there's almost always overlap to some degree: especially when you have a plasma producing atomic hydrogen that embrittles the nickel!
Kenneth R. Shoulders discovered that when a hydrogen embrittled metal (palladium, nickel, titanium, etc) is struck by an EVO, a cascade of fracto-emission can often take place if the impact is sufficiently vigorous. This fracto-emission process, from the separation of charges when the brittle lattice cracks or shatters, emits not only electrons but also smaller EVOs. A macro-scale example would be the ball lightning witnessed after major earthquakes, produced by rock splitting deep in the Earth! Or, you can crack a small boulder with a sledge hammer and witness small EVOs floating around. When Focardi and Piantelli were producing COPs of a maximum of around three by thermally cycling very carefully cleaned, etched, and hydrogenated nickel, they were depending upon this EVO production from within almost exclusively. But, obviously, with no source of atomic hydrogen to maximally embrittle their fuel (they did achieve some degree) and no external source of EVOs, their excess heat output was limited.
With a multitude of methods to produce atomic hydrogen (to embrittle his fuel) and external EVOs (to bombard and strike his fuel) Andrea Rossi was capable of producing a more powerful effect -- when some problem or another didn't produce inert or malfunctioning reactors. Or when he wasn't playing a game with someone. Or when he wasn't trying to stage a failure. But we need to look even more deeply at his systems. Because if you examine them carefully, you'll see he was also lowering the work function of his nickel particles and the carbon allotropes growing on their surface! As you probably know, carbonyl nickel powder contains significant carbon in the lattice left over from the manufacturing process. Me356's Ni 200 alloy wire does too! The official documentation of Ni 200 alloy wire claims that it can excrete graphite. I'm fairly confident the same process happens in various nickel powders as well. Moreover, I was told long ago by someone well experienced in LENR, that Rossi likely added methane or other hydrocarbons during fuel pre-treatment. Long story short, in a high temperature environment with atomic hydrogen around on a metal substrate, the carbon is preferentially transformed to diamond or diamond like compounds rather than graphite. Actually, the plasma continually damages the graphite and the process helps build the nano-tube, whisker, or diamond like structures. Again, there is a lot of overlap here: changes in the carbon source, plasma temperature, atomic hydrogen ratio, metal base, and seed material (specs of graphite or diamond already on the surface) all have a huge impact on the geometry of what's produced. Very often, though, sharp tipped emitters are formed! If they get doped with hydrogen or lithium from the plasma, their work function can drop even further -- in addition to the field increase due to their small tip size. The result is a highly efficient thermionic or even "field effect" emitter that can proceed to eject EVOs into the environment or nearby nickel particles.
Without adding diamonds, Andrea Rossi was likely enhancing the EVO emitting ability of his fuel via multiple mechanisms. But at some point, the fact probably dawned on him: instead of working so hard to optimize my fuel during runs, why not just go out and buy industrial diamonds! Actually, we know this is the case, because diamonds, graphene (which can also be used as a low work function substance, and a couple other materials were mentioned in the court documents. We don't know for sure if they were used in his active heat producing reactors, but they were at least used in the secondary container on the other side of the wall. He was placing diamonds and other catalysts along with fuel in sealed tubes and running the heat from the one megawatt plant (along sometimes with heat from external heating elements) over them. The goal, even though I don't think he ever sold anything, was to alter the fuel in some way to make an even more valuable substance -- perhaps a rare isotope.
The LION reactor is also using industrial diamonds, doped in a very simple and inefficient manner. Apparently, the reactor produces copious excess heat and even self sustaining reactions for long periods of time. Replications need to be performed to confirm this. However, due to the setup LION used, we know that all of his EVOs or spheromaks or strange radiation (all terms describing the same geometric form) was from within. There was nothing I'm aware of to produce EVOs externally and have them strike the discs.
In fact, in the LION reactor, the hydrogenation of the nickel apparently didn't matter much: the quick quench in deuterium probably yielded very little hydrogen absorption into the nickel. Also, fracto-emission and excess heat production doesn't seem to have taken place to a significant degree in the nickel, although we can't know for sure. The metal discs look almost perfect when taken out of the reactor! They don't look melted at all, even though the quartz tube around them was cracked and melted, which would take either 1700C or some sort of strange non-thermal matter manipulation effect. Apparently, the doping of the diamond is what matters in the LION reactor! In addition to what dopants are already present, the O and OH bonds on the surface of the diamond are sufficient to produce a Negative Electron Affinity so the heat can be converted thermionically to electrons and EVOs. These EVOs seem to be very "black" or weakly interactive with matter, and travel through the closest matter (the nickel backs of the pads) with little effect -- although I expect some track marks to be found. Then they travel farther away and eventually destabilize in the copper wire, silver foil, or quartz tube. The result seems to be massive excess heat. Analysis will probably reveal many other anomalies!
So you see, the fundamental stimulation mechanism, Kenneth R. Shoulders EVOs, is the same for the LION reactor and all of Andrea Rossi's systems. In fact, the mechanism was even at work in Sergio Focardi and Piantelli's systems that were thermally and pressure cycled. The only difference is that the doped diamond pads seem to be an absolutely stellar emitter of black (or very gray) EVOs. With only heat stimulation, they seem to be capable of producing enough strange radiation to keep a reactor self sustaining at extremely high temperatures. What's also neat is that the LION reactor works without having to general EVOs from out outside: no Radio Frequency Generators, electrical discharges, or Tesla Coils required!
I'd also like to say that I expect that this reaction would work almost equally as well using hydrogen instead of deuterium. The only difference for the same quantity of dopant in the diamond would be that the use of deuterium would allow for a slightly higher operating temperature. I suspect water vapor in the reactor might be continuously regenerating the diamond. If this is not happening, the solution would be to make sure the diamond has a greater level of dopant when using "light" water verses "heavy" water.
If further verified -- which will require video recordings and measurments taken from extended periods of self sustained operation -- this could represent a super-simple method of producing a massively powerful LENR effect. I'm very encouraged by this development, but I'm keeping my enthusiasm in check until I see a video of a glowing hot reactor in a Model T with the unit unplugged from mains power!
Most importantly, if we can use this technique to demonstrate high powered ASTOUNDED states of excess heat production, it will prove there are countless ways of generating (from within or from outside) EVOs to induce LENR reactions. There will literally be as many types of LENR reactors using EVOs as there are different types of wheeled vehicles: gasoline powered, ethanol powered, electric, hydrogen, natural gas, etc.
This truly is, if verified, Kenneth Shoulders EVO effect in action.
, it sure looks like we now understand the keys to ultra-high powered, spheromak stimulated LENR 
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