Posts by Trifon

Anatomy of the charge cluster of the Kenneth R. Shoulders

Annotation.

This paper describes a new approach to explaining the phenomenon of the charge cluster, discovered by Ken Shoulders at the end of the last century. The proposed model is not based on any controversial scientific hypotheses, but is consistent with generally accepted norms of science. The concept gives an interpretation of the observed LENR manifestations, and also explains the triboelectric effect from a new perspective.

charge cluster, Kenneth R. Shoulders, triboelectric effect

Physicists, when working with arc discharges in vacuum and gaseous media, have long paid attention to atypical spark formations and small ulceration on the anode, always of the same characteristic shape. Winston Bostick met Kenneth R. Shoulders (K. Sh.) at a conference in San Francisco, Diego on November 10, 1980 and interested him in this incomprehensible phenomenon. After that, K. Sh. worked purposefully on this topic in his laboratory for many years and advanced in this direction so much that he can deservedly be considered the discoverer of the Charge cluster (Ch. cl.). The atmosphere of this work is conveyed in his autobiographical essay "EV A Tale of Discovery" in 1987, and detailed information on the research equipment developed by him can be found in the description of his patent US5123039 "Energy Conversion Using High Charge Density" in 1992.

K. Sh. was able to isolate these formations from the complex process of arc discharge in a gas environment, study them with the help of his own created equipment and evaluate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. In fact, he discovered a new phenomenon – the ability of electrons to pass under normal conditions into a state of group anomalous density, into a kind of condensed state. The main condition for the formation of a bunch of such electrons is a high level of electric field strength. Ken, in his laboratory, obtained such a field on the tip of a needle-shaped cathode, additionally treated with a liquid conductive material. In nature, conditions for the formation of such clusters can occur on the sharp edges of mineral or ice crystals, as well as, possibly, in some biological forms.

According to K. Sh., a one Ch. cl. or, as the author calls it EVO, has a size of about 0.1 microns, and the number of electrons packed into such a cluster is 10^8...10^11 pieces. At the same time, the charge cluster captures atoms of matter from the surrounding space in the form of positive ions in the amount of one per 100,000 electrons, i.e. 10 ^ 3 ... 10 ^ 6 pieces. Interestingly, this formation as a whole turns out to be practically neutral electrically, despite such an imbalance between electrons and plus-ions. The energy of Ch is also impressive. cl., - it glows at the stage of formation and and forms a crater when destroyed at the anode. In the description of his patent US5123039 on page 68 (line 16), Kenneth R. Shoulders (K. Sh.) explains the extraordinary energy intensity of the charge cluster (Ch. cl.) in this way: «The source of this increased energy appears to be the vacuum zero point energy, or zero-point radiation. An EV, as a coupling device to zero-point energy, operates as an energy conversion mechanism whereby high frequency Zero point energy of the vacuum continuum is converted to lower frequency energy, captured as electrical output energy by the traveling wave conductor, for example.»

Such an interpretation of the nature of the phenomenon explains little, it is counterproductive. Meanwhile, if we accept that the experimental results correspond to reality and the condensed state of electrons in nature takes place, then we can build a completely acceptable model of Ch. cl., which will not contradict the generally accepted norms of science.

In his routine experiments, Ken obtained charge clusters by applying a relatively small pulsed negative voltage to the cathode of the diode under vacuum conditions with a slight addition of inert gas. At the same time, an electric field of very high intensity appeared on the pointed electrode. This turned out to be enough to start forming condensed clumps of electrons. At the same time and along with them, K. Sh. registered a smoldering discharge and free electrons. This fact suggests that the newly formed electronic cluster does not carry any significant energy reserve. He begins to acquire energy immediately after his appearance, and exclusively at the expense of the surrounding space.

A bunch of one hundred billion electrons (10^11) creates a powerful local electrostatic field that attracts positive gas ions from the close environment. Accelerating in this field, such an ion can acquire an energy of the order of 0.05 – 0.08 MeV, while the energy of ionization, or separation of an electron from an atom from its upper orbit, lies in the range of 10-20 electron volts. Our atom crashes into a dense bunch of electrons and passes through it. At the same time, it loses all its electrons and, in the form of a naked, as in a hot plasma, atomic nucleus, now with a charge equal to the number of its protons, continues to move in a retarding electrostatic field. Due to the remaining energy, the nucleus flies away some distance from the cluster and then begins to make elastic harmonic oscillations through the focus of our electron cluster. This means that, averaged over time, the geometric center of the initial electric charge is now in the focus of the resulting Ch. cl., that is, in fact, a single positive charge has moved from the distant periphery towards a powerful formation charged with the opposite sign. The perfect work passes into the kinetic energy of the oscillating nucleus, and this energy already belongs to Ch. cl. In our case, a cluster can attract one million such positive ions, the process goes on until a shielding layer of positively charged atomic nuclei appears around the electron cluster, spending most of the time in the peripheral zone of the cluster.

Since, according to Coulomb's law, the dependence of the force acting on the test charge on the distance is quadratic, a relatively small number of positive ion nuclei can create the illusion of its electrical neutrality near the surface of the cluster if they are located at a sufficiently large distance from the center. Mutual repulsion of ion nuclei inhibited at the periphery will ensure their strictly uniform distribution over the spherical surface of the cell. This, in turn, will create an ideal symmetry of the entire cell and an accurate alignment of the location of the focus, through which atomic nuclei fly at great speed from different directions.

In order to more clearly imagine the geometric structure of Ch. cl., I give figures reflecting the dimensional relationships of structures within the cluster:

-the number of electrons in the cluster is 10^8...10^11 pieces (according to K. Sh. measurements)

-the number of atoms involved 10^3... 10^6 pieces (according to K. Sh. measurements)

-cluster diameter 10^-7 m (according to K. Sh. measurements)

-atom diameter 10^-10 m

-the diameter of the core-ion is 10^-15 m

-the diameter of the electron is 10^-18 m

-electron mass 10^-30 kg

-protons and neutrons are about 1800 times heavier than an electron

-the average distance between air molecules under normal conditions is 10^-8 m

It is not difficult to calculate the mass and density of Ch. cl.: 10^11*10^-30+10^6*10^-30*1800 = ~10^-19 kg. Increasing its size to one cubic meter for clarity, we get the mass: (1 /(10^-7)^3)*10^-19=10^21*10^-19 = 100 kg. The density of popcorn should not deceive, - the internal distribution of the mass of Ch. cl. is very uneven. Since the experiment shows that Ch. cl. is practically electrically neutral, it is logical to assume that there is a shielding belt of positive charges along the periphery. This screen is formed by 10^6 involved atoms ionized to the state of "naked" nuclei. If it is nitrogen, oxygen and carbon, then their combined charge will be plus 7 * 10 ^ 6 units. Considering that the electric field strength decreases proportionally to the square of the distance, the diameter of the electron clot will be: 10^-7*(7*10^6 / 10^11)^0.5=8.4*10^-10 m. That is, about eight diameters of an atom. This is already the nuclear density, the distance between the electrons will be: ~10^-9 / (10^11)^0.33 = 2.2*10^-13 m. If we now look at the sizes of the electron and the nucleus – ion - 10^-18 m and 10^-15 m, respectively, then we can make sure that there is still enough space inside the condensed electron clot for the previously described functioning of Ch. Cl.

The main thing that is interesting about clusters is their increasingly likely involvement in LENR processes. The main argument of the opponents of cold nuclear fusion is the impossibility of overcoming the Coulomb barrier at low temperatures. However, at these low temperatures, physicists are constantly experimenting with nuclear reactions, accelerating the proton to an energy of 0.1 MeV and sending it to the target. Created by nature, Ch. cl. provides a similar mechanism for the implementation of cold thermonuclear reactions, the effectiveness of which consists of two principles: - high-energy nuclei and precise adjusting. All the atoms involved in Ch. cl. exist in the form of "naked" nuclei – ions, their electrons are transferred to a condensed electron clot. The nuclei continuously make harmonic oscillations through the local focus Ch. cl., while at the focus of the cluster their energy completely passes into kinetic energy and they pass this point at a very high speed. The probability of interactions of nuclei moving from different directions and not synchronized in time is quite high. At the same time, since we are talking about naked nuclei, there are exclusively elastic exchanges of impulses, as a result of which the nuclei change speeds and directions. Naturally, there is a certain alignment on the distribution of energies, and there is a probability of an event when two energetic nuclei on opposite courses collide in the very focus of Ch. cl. This will no longer be an elastic collision, the Coulomb barrier has been overcome, the nuclei will merge with the release of energy or split in a different ratio with the absorption of energy - a nuclear reaction will occur.

Now about the adjusting; let's assume that Ch. cl. is built according to the laws of spherical symmetry. The core – ion, coming to the surface of Ch. cl., completely loses the radial component of its kinetic energy. If there is a tangential component, as a result of a random interaction during the last flight of the focus, then it is removed by electrostatic repulsion of other nuclei – ions currently on the same spherical surface. Therefore, the core before the next movement to the center of Ch. cl. it stops completely in space, and its trajectory is not distorted by anything and is always directed strictly into focus, - the electric and geometric center of Ch. cl.

When a nuclear reaction occurs, a powerful case of 10^11 electrons gently dampens possible fast particles and hard radiation, converting their energy into heat. At the same time, the focal center is temporarily blurred, making the probability of a new meeting of the nuclei insignificant for a while. The nuclear reaction of two medium-gravity nuclei cannot give such energy as the fusion of deuterium and tritium, but some small mass defect is released, and this energy supports the current needs of the charge cluster for radiation. Reactions can often occur with zero or negative energy balance. In the process of vital activity, Ch. cl. continuously exchanges matter with the environment - new atoms and molecules are involved in the charge cluster, others are released into the environment as traces of transmutation. Under favorable conditions, a moving Ch. cl can do a lot of work due to nuclear reactions with a positive energy balance: the formation of known craters in metal foil during its destruction, making moves in photoemulsion and even denser materials (strange radiation).

LENR manifestations are possible only in large Ch. cl., in which the energy of the ion nuclei approaches 0.1 MeV, they can be obtained in the laboratory, in thunderstorm or dust clouds, or under special conditions. Most often, Ch. cl. are small in size and do not carry much energy, they do not glow and are difficult to register. Ch. cl. has a diameter of 10^-7 m, on its surface and the upper third of the volume, naked positively charged atomic nuclei (size 10^-15 m) spend most of the time accelerating and decelerating in their vibrations. The air molecules have a size of 10^-10 m and at normal pressure are separated from each other by 10^-8 m. The scale ratios of the design under consideration suggest that Ch. cl. does not have any aggressive effect on the environment. In order to destroy the orbital shell of a neutral atom and capture its electrons, a positively charged atom – ion must approach this atom at a distance less than the diameter of the atom. As can be seen from the model, the probability of such an event is small, and therefore neutral air molecules can freely move in their thermal motion through the Ch. cl structure. The same cannot be said about free electrons - the nearest atom – ion will capture a wandering electron and immediately deliver it to a bunch of condensed electrons.

Now let's move on to the triboelectric effect. The potential difference of tens of thousands of volts obtained by the simple friction of two dissimilar insulating materials, for example, glass and silk, is still an inexplicable paradox. Take a look at Wikipedia - neither quantum mechanics nor classical physics give an answer to this question. If we assume the ubiquitous presence of the charge clusters described here, then the triboelectric effect is explained easily and simply.

Ch. cl.’s life is not only about their growth, they are fragile and can share. It is enough to rub a glass stick on a silk handkerchief, and triboelectricity arises. Half the size of a bunch of condensed electrons is no longer able to hold its fastest atoms, ions, with its field, and they leave the geometry of the cluster. Crashing at speed into a dielectric material, into ice crystals in clouds, into dust particles of ash during a volcanic eruption, ion atoms take the electrons due to them from neutral atoms. The resulting potential difference is perceived as electrification. The charge from the electrified surface can be removed by bringing electrons from the conduction band (with a metal brush), traces of electrolyte (humidity) or negative gas ions (gradual draining of charge).

It can be assumed that there is a very small excess of electrons on the surface of our planet compared to the number of protons. The reason for this may be the solar wind. A stream of corpuscles and ions coming from the sun enters the earth's atmosphere; on the other hand, even more ions and neutral atoms

it is continuously blown away by the same solar wind from the periphery of the earth's atmosphere. A certain balance is being formed in terms of the total electrostatic charge of the planet. How will excess electrons behave on the surface of our relatively cold planet, if they meet on their way in the vast majority of cases self-sufficient, electrically neutral atoms, molecules and compounds.

In general, the most common form of electron residence in nature is in the form of a component of hot plasma (stars, the Sun). In the condensed part of the universe, electrons occupy the orbits of neutron–proton formations, forming atoms and molecules. When, for one reason or another, an excess of electrons appears in certain parts of space, they apparently condense in the form of clumps, take away from the atoms the number of nuclei necessary for their own shielding, and form Ch. cl.. The next most common group will be free electrons. They can weakly bind to neutral atoms and molecules, forming negative ions, and accumulate in conductors. In electrolytes (oceans), anions and cations are mutually balanced. If the triboelectric effect is explained by manipulations with Ch. cl., then we have to admit that these clusters are ubiquitous (lightning on Venus and Saturn). Probably, Ch. cl. can be of different sizes from the smallest and not observed to large, luminous and capable of LENR manifestations.

How Ch. cl. behave in space, for this you need to consider the electric field that they create. If we take the potential in the geometric center of the cluster as zero, then it grows linearly to a very large negative value to the surface of its core and then monotonically decreases to infinity in a quadratic dependence. At the screening radius, the potential rises to a small positive value and then returns to the main pattern. According to this, Ch. cl. they repel each other, evenly distributed in space, but at the same time, they can be locally grouped, which is observed in experiments. More often, these formations show a preference for the interface between the solid and gas phases.

charge cluster, Kenneth R. Shoulders, triboelectric effect

[email protected]

Saint Petersburg, Rulev Jgor, 2023

In the description of his patent US5123039 on page 68 (line 16), Kenneth R. Shoulders (K. Sh.) explains the extraordinary energy intensity of the charge cluster (Ch. cl.) in this way: «The source of this increased energy appears to be the vacuum zero point energy, or zero-point radiation. An EV, as a coupling device to zero-point energy, operates as an energy conversion mechanism whereby high frequency Zero point energy of the vacuum continuum is converted to lower frequency energy, captured as electrical output energy by the traveling wave conductor, for example.»

There are more words than meaning in this text. An irresponsible and counterproductive approach. Meanwhile, all the properties of Ch. cl., including its high energy, can be explained within the framework of generally accepted concepts (the ability of electrons to transition into a condensed state is being taken out of brackets for now).

In his routine experiments, K. Sh. obtained charge clusters by applying a relatively small pulsed negative voltage to the cathode of the diode under vacuum conditions with a slight addition of inert gas. At the same time, an electric field of very high intensity appeared on the pointed electrode. This turned out to be enough to start forming condensed clumps of electrons. At the same time and along with them, K. Sh. registered a smoldering discharge and free electrons. This fact suggests that the newly formed electronic cluster does not carry any significant energy reserve. He begins to acquire it immediately after its occurrence, and exclusively at the expense of the surrounding space.

A bunch of one hundred billion electrons #61, #43 creates a local electrostatic field that attracts positive gas ions. Accelerating in an electrostatic field, the ion crashes into a dense clot, frees itself from all its electrons and, in the form of a bare, as in a hot plasma, atom – ion, due to the remaining energy, flies away some distance from the clot and then begins to make elastic harmonic oscillations through the focus of our electron clot. At the same time, averaged over time, the geometric center of the electric charge is now in the focus of the resulting Ch. cl., that is, in fact, a single positive charge has moved from the distant periphery towards a powerful formation charged with the opposite sign. The perfect work passes into the kinetic energy of the oscillating atom – ion, and this energy already belongs to Ch. cl. In our case, a cluster can attract one million such positive ions, the process goes on until a shielding layer of temporarily halting ion nuclei appears around the electron clot, making the Ch. cl. outwardly almost electrically neutral.

Next, the most interesting property of the charge cluster comes into effect – the ability to LENR manifestations. The larger the size of the condensed bunch of electrons, the greater the kinetic energy of the nuclei –ions flying in their oscillations through the focus Ch. cl. This focus is small, and sometimes the probability of a direct collision of two nuclei will lead to overcoming the notorious Coulomb barrier. As a result of the collision, fission or synthesis of atoms, absorption or release of energy, transmutation and release of elementary particles are possible. The thickness of condensed electrons completely extinguishes possible radiation and corpuscular radiation. Under favorable conditions, a moving Ch. cl can do a lot of work due to nuclear reactions with a positive energy balance: the formation of known craters in metal foil during its destruction, making moves in photoemulsion and even denser materials (strange radiation).

Ch. cl. has a diameter of 10^-7 m, on its surface and the upper third of the volume, naked positively charged atomic nuclei (size 10^-15 m) spend most of the time accelerating and slowing down in their vibrations. The air molecules have a size of 10^-10 m and at normal pressure are separated from each other by 10^-8 m. The scale ratios of the design under consideration suggest that Ch. cl. does not have an aggressive effect on the environment. In order to destroy the orbital shell of a neutral atom and capture its electrons, a positively charged atom – ion must approach this atom at a distance less than the diameter of the atom. As can be seen from the model, the probability of such an event is small, and therefore neutral air molecules can freely move in their thermal motion through the Ch. cl structure. The same cannot be said about free electrons - the nearest atom – ion will capture a wandering electron and immediately deliver it to a bunch of condensed electrons.

If we assume that small imperceptible Ch. cl. are ubiquitous, then there is simply no place for free electrons in nature, except in technical devices, laboratories and thunderstorms. The life of Ch. cl.’ is not only in their growth, they are fragile and easily divided. It is enough to rub a glass stick on a silk handkerchief, and triboelectricity #49 arises. Half the size of a bunch of condensed electrons is no longer able to hold its fastest atoms, ions, and they leave the geometry of the cluster. Crashing at speed into a dielectric material, into ice crystals in clouds, into dust particles of ash during a volcanic eruption, ion atoms take the electrons due to them from neutral atoms, electrification occurs in the surface layer of the material.

Before proceeding to the analysis of individual works by Ken Shoulders (K. Sh.), I want to add some details to the previously described #43, #49 of my model of the structure of the charge cluster (Ch. cl.) To clarify the following postulates and confirm the validity of the conclusions drawn from them, I give the following data:

-the number of electrons in the cluster 10^8...10^11 pieces (according to K. Sh. measurements)

-the number of atoms involved 10^3... 10^6 pieces (according to K. Sh. measurements)

-cluster diameter 10^-7 m (according to K. Sh. measurements)

-atom diameter 10^-10 m

-the diameter of the core-ion is 10^-15 m

-electron diameter 10^-18 m

-electron mass 10^-30 kg

-protons and neutrons are about 1800 times heavier than an electron

-the average distance between air molecules under normal conditions is 10^-8 m .

It is not difficult to calculate the mass and density of Ch. cl.: 10^11*10^-30+10^6*10^-30*1800 = ~10^-19 kg. Increasing its size to one cubic meter for clarity, we get the mass: (1 /(10^-7)^3)*10^-19=10^21*10^-19 = 100 kg. The density of popcorn should not deceive, - the internal distribution of the mass of Ch. cl. is very uneven. Since the experiment shows that Ch. cl. is practically electrically neutral, it is logical to assume that there is a shielding belt of positive charges along the periphery. This screen is formed by 10^6 involved atoms ionized to the state of "naked" nuclei. If it is nitrogen, oxygen and carbon, then their combined charge will be plus 7 * 10 ^ 6 units. Considering that the electric field strength decreases proportionally to the square of the distance, the diameter of the electron clot will be: 10^-7*(7*10^6 / 10^11)^0.5=8.4*10^-10 m. That is, a little less than two diameters of an atom. This is already the nuclear density, the distance between the electrons will be: ~10^-9 / (10^11)^0.33 = 2.2*10^-13 m. If we now look at the sizes of the electron and the nucleus – ion - 10^-18 m and 10^-15 m, respectively, then we can make sure that there is still enough space inside the condensed electron clot for the previously described functioning of Ch. cl.

The most common form of electron residence in nature exists in the form of a component of hot plasma (stars, the Sun). In the condensed part of the universe, electrons occupy the orbits of neutron–proton formations, forming atoms and molecules. When, for one reason or another, an excess of electrons appears in certain parts of space, they apparently condense in the form of clumps, take away from the atoms the number of nuclei necessary for their own shielding, and form Ch. cl. There are still excess electrons in metals, but in natural nature they are rare. In electrolytes (oceans), anions and cations are mutually balanced. It is difficult to find free electrons in nature "by themselves". If the triboelectric effect is explained by manipulations with Ch. cl., then we have to admit that these clusters are ubiquitous (lightning on Venus and Saturn). Probably, Ch. cl. can be of different sizes from the smallest and not observed to large, luminous and capable of Lenr - manifestations.

Quote from Cydonia

Your postulates are good however you still have to define the glue which sticks all electrons together to fully explain these charge clusters.

Here's what Ken Shoulders writes about the ability of electrons to assemble into dense formations in his work. (What’s an EVO?)

Why Would They Act This Way: There are several unique properties to the portion of space we occupy on this planet and nearby neighborhood. One of the most obvious curiosities is the way we have reached a charge neutral or charge balanced condition, with the exception of an occasional thunderstorm, fractoemission cracked rock, and rubbing hair on amber. The driving force behind this is that electrons really don’t want to be alone. At the first opportunity available, they join up with something. In the case of elements, they readily join the nucleus, with its positive charge invitation, until a balance is obtained.

Oddly enough, and this is not common knowledge, they also join each other as long as the spacing is as close as one atomic diameter or so. That is what happens when an abrupt, high field process, like a gas discharge or field emission, forcibly ejects electrons from a conductor at sufficiently high current density. Having once achieved this uncommon union for our portion of space, the electrons stick together until the marriage is violated by a sufficient quantity of conductor where they are forced to return to their more common state as an atom. But while in this little package, whatever it is called, very delightful things happen that can be used to our advantage.

At this point all we have is a controllable entity capable of extraordinary thrust and using trivial control power. Some of the requirements for this condition seem to be connected to its large size, being larger than a single electron, and the apparent closeness of the substructure, assuming there are internal parts. Curiously, the critical number density of the substructure matches Avogadro’s number. To a first approximation, the parts within are spaced the same as if they were in an atomic lattice.

Zephyr_AWT

The discharge between two "liquid" electrodes inside the hole in the quartz plate is promising for possible abnormal energy release and transmutation, it is valuable for the simplicity of calarimetry and ease of reproduction. Perhaps someone will want to carry out such work. I'm 83, and I'm not experimenting anymore.

The YouTube you have shown is good - elegant in its staging. Unfortunately, you can't reproduce it - there is no author's reactor. Here the "key" is nine years of demonstration.

By the way, who did not understand, the question of ingenuity: why did you need a short thermometer?

Charge clusters are common in nature, they are present constantly and everywhere, and we simply do not pay attention to them. It is enough to stroke the cat: - sparks, crackling, the smell of ozone. Is it too much energy release compared to the energy spent? We do not erase individual electrons with silk from a glass stick, but destroy spontaneously formed charge clusters. The electrophoretic machine from the physics classroom, remember? You twist the handle, and sparks jump between the balls. And what if we attach to it a modern, high-efficiency converter of high voltage to voltage to drive the same machine. Does it look like a perpetual motion machine? No, just a kind of conversion of scattered thermal energy, the use of a natural artifact. And if we increase this car to the size of a bus?

But these are emotions... seriously.

In order to convince the opponent of the reality of the previously described model of the structure and functioning of the Scholdens charge cluster, it is necessary to show a number of phenomena. Let's say there is a very small excess of electrons on the surface of our planet compared to the number of protons. The reason for this may be the solar wind. The flow of corpuscles and ions coming from the sun enters the earth's atmosphere, on the other hand, even more ions and neutral atoms are continuously blown away by the same solar wind from the periphery of the earth's atmosphere. A certain balance is being formed in terms of the total electrostatic charge of the planet.

How will excess electrons behave on the surface of our relatively cold planet, if they meet on their way in the vast majority of cases self-sufficient, electrically neutral atoms, molecules and compounds. The ionization energy, or the separation of an electron from an atom from its upper orbit, lies in the range of 10-20 electron volts. So the average energy of the "extra" electrons is below this limit, let's say 5 electron volts. If we recall that the energy acquired by an electron accelerated by a potential difference of one volt corresponds to a temperature of 11,600 degrees on the Kelvin scale, it becomes clear that these are fast enough electrons. Moving charges are affected by their own electromagnetic field. (they twist around the magnetic field line of force). Light electrons are pulled together into jets, begin to move along closed circuits. These tiny toroid coils also interact with each other with their magnetic fields, forming a mutually ordered quasi–crystalline structure of a sufficiently large number of electrons.

Further, the clumps of electrons attract positive gas ions from the near environment and accelerate them in the electrostatic field to such high speeds that the ionized atom loses all its electrons inside the clot and turns into a "naked" core – ion. This charged particle of small size flies through a cluster of electrons, slows down in an electrostatic field and stops at the level of the screening radius, after which it performs continuous harmonic oscillations through the focus of the electron cluster. A whole cloud of such ions spends most of the time on the periphery of the electron cluster, completely shielding it in the surrounding space. The screening radius is such that the number of ions is about three orders of magnitude less than the number of electrons in the cluster.

Now let's move on to the triboelectric effect. The potential difference of tens of thousands of volts obtained by the simple friction of two dissimilar insulating materials, for example, glass and silk, is still an inexplicable paradox. Take a look at Wikipedia, neither quantum mechanics nor classical physics give an answer to this question. If we assume the ubiquitous presence of the charge clusters described here, then the triboelectric effect is explained easily and simply.

At the moment of mechanical friction, when the charge cluster is destroyed, we get a large number of positively charged nuclei – ions flying in different directions. Some of these particles have a high velocity and, accordingly, energy. They cannot be neutralized by the abundant cold electrons and cut into the thickness of the insulating material, taking electrons from neutral atoms. At the same time, a volumetric positive charge appears in the material. The insulator cannot be negatively charged, there are no free electrons in it and "extra" electrons do not bind to it. Therefore, the second rubbing insulating material is also positively charged, but due to its nature, to a different potential. The resulting potential difference is perceived as electrification. The charge from the electrified surface can be removed by bringing electrons from the conduction band (with a metal brush), traces of electrolyte (humidity) or negative gas ions (gradual draining of charge). As everyday experience shows, "extra" electrons do not want to participate in this matter, they prefer to get involved in new charge clusters.

Quote from Cydonia

Very vague postulate..So in this way what kind of reaction should be talking about then ?

You ask me what happens if two neon nuclei with a total energy of 0.3 mega electron volts are pushed head-on when the Coulomb barrier is 0.1? I don't know, these things have been done on accelerators for 30 years. Meanwhile, it does not surprise you that at room temperature, in a vacuum tube from a voltage source of 50 volts, such an accelerator created by nature is demonstrated. You do not dispute in any way that a lot of cold electrons can transfer some of their energy to a few ions and make them capable of defeating the act of a thermonuclear reaction…

Cydonia

What's the difference, there are a great many nuclear reactions. Moreover, both the products of previous reactions and the newly involved atoms are involved. Everything that is synthesized to the left of iron and decays to the right of iron comes with the release of energy.

Let us now turn to the main subject of this topic - the charge clusters of the Shoulders, they are also EVO, which may be responsible for LENR. According to Ken Shoulders, who discovered this phenomenon, a single EVO has a size of about 0.1 microns, and the number of electrons packed into such a cluster is 10^8...10^11 pieces. Further, the charge cluster acquires a significant mass, capturing atoms of matter from the surrounding space in the form of positive ions in the amount of one per 100,000 electrons, i.e. 10 ^ 3 ... 10 ^ 6 pieces. (read more here)

What is most surprising is that this formation as a whole turns out to be practically neutral electrically, despite such an imbalance between electrons and plus- ions.

Ken received his EVOs in a pre–ionized inert gas (neon) at a pressure of 1-2 mm Hg. A negative pulse with an amplitude of 50 volts of very short duration (hundreds of picoseconds) was applied to the cathode made in the form of a sharp needle. As a result of the autoelectronic emission, electron jets descended from the tip of the cathode and formed numerous toroid rings in which the electrons moved in a closed circle. Magnetic fields bonded and oriented these rings into a compact clot having a significant negative charge (see note 1).

The total electrostatic field of this charge attracts a positive ion of neon gas (10 neutrons, 10 protons and 9 electrons), it accelerates in a powerful field to an energy of 0.15 million electron volts (see note 2), passes through a bunch of electrons, loses all its electrons at the same time, is slowed down by an electron bunch remaining behind, and finally, stops in the form of a "naked" ion with parameters (10 neutrons, 10 protons and 0 electrons). Further, it is destined to make continuous oscillations strictly through the center of the electron cluster (the focus of the crystal) with its amplitude and frequency.

Naturally, he is not the only one, as many ions will be collected from the nearby space as it takes to create a dynamic shell that completely shields the group of electrons in the center of the formation. Since, according to Coulomb's law, the dependence of the impact force on the distance is quadratic, with a sufficiently large radius of the environment, the number of necessary positive ions will be orders of magnitude less than the electrons employed in the process. Mutual repulsion of ions inhibited at the periphery will ensure their strictly uniform distribution over the spherical surface of the cell. This, in turn, will create an ideal symmetry of the entire cell and an accurate alignment of the position in the focus space, through which the nuclei of helium atoms fly at great speed from different directions. Thus , a charge cluster or EVO was formed .

There is a non-zero probability of collision on the opposite courses of two such nuclei in the focus of the cell. The energy required to overcome the Coulomb barrier is known to be about 0.1 million electron volts. When a nuclear reaction occurs, a powerful case of 10^8 electrons gently dampens possible fast particles and hard radiation, converting their energy into heat. At the same time, the focal center is temporarily blurred, making the probability of a new meeting of the nuclei insignificant. The ions on the outer surface of the charge cluster are very active chemically - they are constantly "stripped" to the state of "naked" nuclei, traveling through the electronic "core". Therefore, they greedily collect electrons from the environment and ionize the oncoming neutral atoms, involving them in the ionic part of the cluster formation. Thus, after formation, the charge cluster no longer needs initial conditions (rarefied ionized gas) - it begins its own life.

The nuclear reaction of two neon nuclei cannot give such energy as the fusion of deuterium and tritium, but some small mass defect is released, and this energy supports the needs of the charge cluster for radiation for some time. Ken Scholders may have added some hydrogen to his gas mixture. Often reactions can occur with zero or negative energy balance. In the process of vital activity, EVO continuously exchanges matter with the environment - new atoms and molecules are involved in the charge cluster, others are released into the environment as traces of transmutation.

The EVO model I propose is similar to the Grinev plasma crystal, there are also serious differences. The plasma inside the sun is equilibrium, i.e. the total charge of electrons inside a certain volume is equal to the charge of nuclei – ions. In addition, the average temperature of electrons is equal to the average temperature of ions and corresponds to the temperature inside the sun. In a charge cluster, there are five orders of magnitude more electrons than ions and they are completely cold, their temperature is only 50 electron volts. Ion nuclei, on the contrary, in the focus of the cluster have an average temperature of 0.15 million electron volts.

Note 1. The unusual behavior of electrons during autoelectronic emission will be considered later.

Note 2. The figure of 0.15 million electron volts is obtained by solving the following problem: an ion with a mass of 20 atomic units and a charge plus 1.6 × 10 ^-19 Coulomb accelerates from infinity to the center of a distributed charge of 10 ^ 8 electrons. A neon nucleus of approximately the same mass with a positive charge ten times greater flies out of a bunch of electrons, slows down in the field of a bunch of electrons and stops at the border of the cluster.

Appeal. The idea is being developed and actively searched for. I invite those who wish to participate. Constructive criticism is welcome. St. Petersburg, Rulev Igor.

[email protected]

Two views on the most important issues of the inner life of the sun. How is the stability of the course of the thermonuclear reaction maintained, and how is the released energy removed to the surface of the sun? From a generally accepted point of view, when the hot fully ionized plasma inside the sun is in chaotic motion, the answer to the first question looks like this (quoting wikipedia). «The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate.»

From the point of view of the theory of crystalline plasma (Grinev), at a sufficiently high temperature, fully ionized atomic nuclei and free electrons self-organize into a rigid structure where there is no spontaneity, and collisions of nuclei are possible only in the focus of plasma crystals. Moreover, the size of this focus, which means that the probability of a collision of nuclei depends on the degree of excitation of this plasma cell. After the implementation of the next thermonuclear interaction, the released energy greatly distorts the symmetry of its own and neighboring crystal cells. The alignment of electron flows and nuclear trajectories is disrupted, and the probability of a new act of interaction of nuclei in this local location is reduced to zero. Only after the excess energy is dissipated, the equilibrium is restored. Such negative feedback regulates energy release well at any depth and in any location.

On the second issue, the issue of the removal of energy from the inner regions of the sun to the surface. Each act of thermonuclear interaction is accompanied by the scattering of high-energy particles and the emission of a hard gamma quantum. Hot plasma quickly absorbs kinetic energy of particles, light quanta are repeatedly re-emitted on electrons by the "Rosseland mean opacity" mechanism. Due to the randomness of the thermal motion of the plasma, the thermal conductivity of the solar column turns out to be very small. A quantum of light passes into the relativistic part of the electron mass an infinite number of times, then is emitted again at the first collision with a plasma particle. It is difficult to imagine how the number of these stray quanta affects the probability of new acts of thermonuclear reaction by feedback.

According to Grinev's version, electrons in a plasma crystal move along their trajectories harmoniously, they do not collide and do not emit. Only the nuclei of atoms in the focus of the crystal are subjected to collisions. At the periphery of crystals, jets of electrons moving at relativistic velocities flow freely between neighbors. The thermal conductivity of such a formation is many orders of magnitude greater than in chaotic thermal motion. A noticeable temperature gradient in the radial direction to the surface is sufficient for the released thermonuclear energy to leave the reaction zone.

"Cubically centered lattice", "hexagonal flat structure"... this is not exactly in the sun. These terms refer to the crystal lattice of a solid. The professor, of course, understands that at a temperature on the surface of the sun of more than

5778 degrees, hydrogen loses its connection with its only electron, and these regular structures will have to be formed with generalized electrons.

According to the accepted concept, protons and electrons of hydrogen plasma move chaotically, and their energy obeys the Maxwell distribution. A certain ordered structure cannot be formed in these conditions.

Before dealing with the situation inside the Scholders charge cluster, let's see what we have with a classical equilibrium fully ionized plasma.

Such plasma consists of free electrons and atomic nuclei completely cleared of electrons. For convenience, we will call them simply ions. Such plasma can be found in three places: in the plasma ball of a thermonuclear explosion, in various types of ITER installations (magnetic confinement, electronic or laser plasma crimping) and, finally, in the bowels of the sun. I specially translated into English one work of a dissident physicist from the Physics Department Vladimir Grinev, unfamiliar to the audience.

Here is my translation

Here is the Russian-language original

additionally

The author convincingly described his model in all details. As it turned out, at a temperature of tens of millions of degrees, plasma particles can no longer move chaotically and randomly. Under the influence of their own magnetic fields (Lorentz force), electrons combine into jets (into separate beams, streams), and these jets interact with each other in such a way that a focus point (a three-dimensional intersection of these beams) is formed in the center of a spherical formation (double Debye radius).

Positive ions are grouped along the periphery and make energetic oscillatory movements through this focus point under the influence of an electric field. At the same time, their energy at the periphery is minimal (cold) and maximal after acceleration in a powerful electric field at the focus point (hot, millions of degrees). Elastic collisions of ions occur most often only in the focus zone, when they exchange impulses and energy. Here it is also possible, with an exact axial collision, to overcome the Coulomb barrier between two ions (nuclear interaction).

Electrons, on the contrary, have the greatest energy at the periphery when they are entwined in jets. The magnetic field returns them to the center of the debye cell, in the electric field they lose energy and their collective connectivity. In the area near the focus, they are already impersonal and cold, and there the electrons spend the bulk of their time cycle.

A cell, or a plasma crystal according to Grinev, thus represents a very strongly polarized formation of cold fully ionized positive ions outside and also cold inactive electrons inside with a potential difference between them equal to the average plasma temperature expressed in electron volts. It is important that the energy distribution is allowed only to ions, so they are located at different distances from the focus point in the cold phase (in the form of a "matryoshka"). Electrons, accelerating from the center, acquire the same velocity equal to the average temperature of the plasma. Each ion continuously makes oscillatory movements through the focus to the periphery and back, each with its own amplitude, which may change as a result of possible interactions with other ions in the focus area. Electrons under the action of an electric field spread from the center to the periphery, again get knocked down into jets, and along steep trajectories pass tangentially to the surface of the Debye radius.

Another important property of the described model is the mechanism of intensive energy exchange between individual plasma cells. It is carried out by both ions and electrons. As mentioned above, fully ionized positive atomic nuclei receive a significant energy spread as a result of interactions within the focus of the cell. Such a particle with increased energy, flying out to the periphery of the cell, slips into the neighboring cell, taking part of the energy with it. Electrons, moving in relativistic jets along the periphery of the cell, do not know belonging to "their" cell at all. They freely exchange with their neighbors, also transferring energy (there is a good thermal conductivity in the plasma medium). Thus, a cell in which a nuclear interaction occurred or it was excited, for example, by a flying energetic alpha particle, firstly, significantly increases its temperature, which is accompanied by an increase in the Debye radius. Secondly, it gently transfers its energy to its neighbors through many participating particles at once.

And, finally, the most important property of the described model. The complexly organized system of self-adjustment of the plasma focus of the cell works in such a way that the alignment of the system depends on the level of "calmness" inside this cell. An external or internal disturbance is sufficient (a sharp influx of energy, an inelastic collision of nuclei in focus), and the focus area of the cell is blurred, the alignment of the system is temporarily disrupted. This means that the probability of meeting and the degree of interaction of nuclei-ions flying from different directions through the zone of blurred focus is greatly reduced.

The probabilistic act of fusion of nuclei realized in a quiet cell immediately increases the temperature of the entire local plasma zone. At the same time, the cells in this zone collectively unbalance their plasma foci and significantly reduce the likelihood of a new act of nuclear energy release. The existence of such a mechanism explains the scanty specific energy release inside the sun or the prolonged and gentle gorenje plasma ball during the explosion of a hydrogen bomb. The effects and mechanisms of "Rosseland mean opacity", "Rosseland opacities" become unnecessary.

The plasma theory building has been built collectively for the last hundred years. Thousands of dissertations have been written. To make ends meet, it has become absurdly complicated, and sometimes it is very difficult to admit that, perhaps, it is being built on the wrong foundation.

When Grinev at Phys Tech got out too much with "his theory", he was simply fired and received, in fact, a ban on the profession.

His theory of plasma is difficult to prove, but at the same time it is also difficult to refute…

I am a long-time lenr-themed person of interest, but I paid serious attention to this site for the first time. Perhaps the recent restructuring had a beneficial effect. There is a serious situation here, discipline, good activity, dilettante’s are not favored.

After reading a number of branches, I got the impression that the range of discussions of the lenr area in this house is somewhat limited and specifically shifted. With my theme, I will try to diversify the picture somewhat, and the monologue mode will suit me quite well.

To begin with, I put here a link to my old work on the interpretation of the works of Ken Shoulders. On this occasion, I specially translated it from Russian into English.

Зарядовые кластеры Kenneth R. Shoulders'а

Summary.

A talented researcher K.S. discovered and researched his EVO’s and by this alone put himself in that very queue in front of F&P. Complexity and chaos often tend to be dialectically simplified (have the such a property).

A decade and a half has passed since Ken's elegant experiments proved that electrons are able to self-organize into structures with properties completely unheard of before him.

These were not random observations - a man experimented with his charge clusters for years, tried to convey his discoveries to the scientific community, defended five patents in which he scrupulously conveyed the device of his experimental installations. Still no curiosity.

The Paris Academy has stopped considering perpetual motion projects since the beginning of the last century. This is wise, and, most importantly, convenient.

What K.S. did have in his experiments?

In conditions when the curvature of the metal surface is greater than a certain value (a sharp needle, a grain of a nanocrystal) and in the presence of an electric field directed from the cathode, electrons gather in groups of 10 ^ 8 pieces, capture 10 ^ 3 of any atoms from the surrounding space and create strictly orderly electrically neutral formations capable of smoothly drifting in space. For this alone, Ken is entitled to a bonfire... or a Nobel Prize.

Clusters are readily grouped into larger formations. Usually he experimented with more noticeable "sparks" of 10 ^ 3 clusters, and only after a year of work Ken was able to get a single EV - for this the inventor needed to recreate picosecond electronics.

Ken was particularly struck by the fact that throughout his life EV has a positive balance of energy with the environment. The cluster glows when moving, induces potential and allows you to remove some of the energy from metal screens, literally explodes when destroyed at the anode. Where does the energy come from? Ken suggested the existence of a certain zero energy of the ether. Later it turned out that charge clusters really have access to inexhaustible energy, and this is due to the mass exchange between the environment and the internal atomic mass of the cluster. Moving through space, the cluster captures the atoms in its path and simultaneously releases the same or slightly different atoms from its pool. The cluster uses the meager mass defect resulting from the rearrangement of protons and neutrons inside the pool of atoms for its comfortable existence. Ken showed that in his tube EV is tracked at a distance of 2-3 mm if there is a vacuum, and confidently drifts to the anode at a distance of 60 cm in an argon atmosphere at a pressure of 3-4 mmHg.

The article was written more than ten years ago, some links may not work.

I looked through the EVO branch and realized that this animal is nothing but a superconducting and at the same time a superfluid black hole consisting of 43% Higgs bosons.

Meanwhile, Wikipedia still does not know such words as "EVO" and "Lenr"

By the way, I want to ask. Has anyone repeated the experiment of Showalders, when he turned a nanosecond pulse into an electrically neutral EV cluster containing 10 ^ 11 pieces of electrons on the tip of a needle? And when this cluster, having slowly drifted, was safely discharged in another part of the installation into another circuit, returning all 10 ^ 11 pieces of electrons in cash. Or should it be taken as a fairy tale?

Alan Smith, thank you for the useful information.

With a laser, of course. A grid of small holes is burned. When working with one hole, do not allocate energy in the volume of the bath so that the temperature in it rises to 50 degrees C.

about the polarity, I agree, about the plate - no

http://rulev-igor1940.ru/bilder/bild_17.png

Alan Smidt

I would also suggest that silicon may not be a requirement, if you only need to create a dielectric barrier, perhaps a polycarbonate sheet will do.

I disagree. Where we are talking about transmutation as a result of EV activity, it is not desirable to have unjustifiably extraneous materials (we have only water and silicon). In addition, a powerful cavitation occurs in the hole when the vapor bubbles collapse.

I also think that 2 kV is quite a lot

The voltage on the power source, as well as the polarity, can be changed.

There is 3 km between the cloud and the ground, a lightning discharge develops within a second. The difference between the velocity of the field propagation and the development of the streamer (ionized channel in gas) is five orders of magnitude (300,000 / 3).

EV plays the main role in the development of the streamer. The resulting charge cluster absorbs 10 ^ 11 electrons where there are many of them. At the same time, the EV remains electrically neutral, which is absolutely incredible from the point of view of modern science and what Showalders has convincingly proved with his experiments. Further, the cluster, being neutral or slightly charged, drifts relatively slowly across the field or to the side and finally crashes. It releases its electrons in a space filled with neutral atoms - an electrically conductive island is formed. The discharge instantly germinates to the length of the drift EV. The paratroopers were put on a plane and thrown into enemy territory.

In our case, the streamer develops from the hole in the diaphragm to the electrodes and the concentration of EV clusters near the holes is greatest. In the experiment, it is most important to trace the balance of energy. The cluster does not live at the expense of an external field, but at the expense of transmutations, and since it consumes energy (at least for radiation), the balance should be positive.

Quote from Alan Smith

Where did your photographs come from?

https://earchive.tpu.ru/bitstream/11683/37504/1/dis00143.pdf

this institute is working on the problems of water purification. detailed research

Bostick, it seems, viewed these clusters as interesting formations that allow tracking the electromagnetic field in his installation. How iron filings "draw" magnetic lines of force on cardboard.